The purpose of this paper is to throw light on sustained research-practice collaborations (called 'schemes' here) aimed at improving educational outcomes. The empirical work combines a survey of thirteen school-university knowledge-exchange schemes in six European countries, with four case studies drawn from these. Three theoretical models of knowledge use are employed to aid analysis of these cases. It is suggested that a judicious mix of the three perspectives helps in understanding what makes such collaborations successful. Stages in the cyclical process of improving practice through use of research are described, beginning with frank analysis of pre-existing ways of thinking and culminating in the challenge of altering established practice.