Higher education as a field of study emerged as universities became complex institutions requiring data and interpretation for effective management and governance. The field expanded in the mid-20th century, and now includes many research and other journals, books, and other reports and publications. Academic departments and centers have been established to produce research and analysis, as well as to train professionals for university management. Government agencies also produce data on higher education, and many universities have established departments for institutional research to help them in management and planning. The field of higher education studies has grown along with the massification of postsecondary education worldwide.