Growing up black in America is a difficult process. Racism and discrimination are as much a part of America's heritage as democracy and equality. For more than three centuries, American society and its institutions have segregated and excluded minority groups, especially blacks, on the basis of racial features. In 1947, Clark and Clark tested the effect of racial identification on self-concept by interviewing 253 black nursery and primary school children in the segregated south and the integrated north. As part of the study, children were asked to choose either a white or a black doll. Most of the children, even as early as 3 years old, preferred the white doll. Numerous subsequent studies conducted with more refinements and greater controls found the same positive attitude toward light skinned dolls. However, these studies tell us very little about how black children feel about themselves in various situations. Only when the research begins to examine the total environment of black children can we begin to understand how they adapt to living in a racist society. (Author/WI)