Public uses of tests and testing include all those materials and practices in observation of human behavior that are intended to help administrators, school boards, legislatures, taxpayers, and others to evaluate their educational systems. Pedagogical uses of tests, on the other hand, cover all those materials and practices in observation of human behavior that are intended to help the teacher do a better job of teaching or the learner do a better job of learning, or both. The movement toward accountability affects public testing since if what legislators want students to demonstrate is reading and writing skill, then that is what the tests for public use will measure. Economic considerations dictate that tests of reading and writing skills be used to ascertain the general effectiveness of the whole organization of public education rather than that of single schools or individual teachers. Most important in the use of pedagogical tests is that they cover all the kinds of learning teachers hope to have the students attain. To accomplish this end, teachers can choose among standardized tests, teacher-made tests, and systematic observation of pupils. A good teacher who is also informed about measurement blends teaching and testing and learning so smoothly that it is often impossible to tell where one stops and another starts. (HOD)