Symbolic objects are cognitive tools children must learn to master very early in life. A crucial factor in cognitive development is the instruction or informational support children receive in social contexts. While numerous studies have investigated the relation between instruction and development in various domains, like language or symbolic…

Reading mathematics differs from reading prose, and needs special treatment by the teacher. Thirteen necessary skills are described; these include knowing what to read next, using mathematical words, seeing and understanding symbols, reading charts, and searching for meaning. Techniques and activities to enhance these skills are discussed. (SD)

Seventy-one college students were taught probability and statistics for one month by one of three methods: MP, manipulative-pictorial; P, pictorial; and S, symbolic. Analysis of variance yielded significant differences (p.05) between treatment groups for selected subtests of an achievement test and generally favored MP and P over S.

This paper reports a study which attempted to generalize earlier results obtained by Eastman to another mathematical content area. Two hundred eight ninth-grade algebra students were randomly assigned to one of the two treatments. The figural-inductive treatment presented concepts of logic through the use of Euler diagrams in an inductive mode;…

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a practical procedure for determining the optimum sequencing of pictorial classification tasks in science using mean difficulty indices generated by a standard sample of grade two students. Acquisition of such skills can affect the learner's performance on subsequent material and the teacher's efforts in…