This study surveyed the connection of empathy and self-esteem with active sporting. The subjects were 1,381 members of Finnish baseball teams between the ages of 8 to 16. The instruments used in testing the subjects were: (1) the modified Mehrabian & Epstein Empathy test (1972); (2) the Battle Self-Esteem Scale, Form B (1981); (3) the…

Effects of assertiveness training on assertive behaviors and self-esteem were investigated among Black high school students. Results showed a significant difference between scores of males and females on the written assertiveness measure. Scores of females accounted for all of the change, whereas scores of males actually dropped somewhat.…

In U.S. society dominance appears extremely desirable. The purpose of this study was an attempt to measure the relationship between dominance, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Research questions were: "Do the people who score high on the Dominance scale of the California Psychological Inventory have higher self-esteem scores as measured by…

Studied influence of sex roles on defense mechanisms. Females completed Defense Mechanisms Inventory (DMI) and Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). Low masculinity on the BSRI was associated with high Turning Against Self on the DMI. High masculine subjects indicated greater willingness to attack objects of frustration. (Author)

Expanded the curriculum of an assertiveness training program. Found that boys and girls benefited similarly in the cognitive acquisition of assertiveness information from this program. Discusses results in terms of the difference between having stored symbolic information regarding assertive responses and in recognizing appropriate contexts for…

Androgyny consists of the integration of relatively large numbers of both feminine and masculine sex-stereotyped characteristics. The androgynous person is viewed as a more adaptable individual. Several researchers have studied this "androgyny-equals-adaptability" hypothesis set forth by Bem (1974). Examination of this data yields a phenomenon…

Despite the increase in the number of women entering the work force, the organizational setting is not typically conducive to upward mobility for most women. According to a variety of research studies, the impact of sex role stereotyping clearly suggests a set of communication behaviors appropriate for male managers and a different set appropriate…

Situational influences on self-confidence and assertiveness in female and male graduate students in science and engineering were studied, based on responses from 328 Stanford University students (155 males and 173 females). Two dependent variables were used: an index of items measuring an individual's self-confidence in the ability to perform…

A study sought to determine whether gender-related differences in communication style emerge developmentally. The study focused on assertive, egalitarian, and supportive communication styles rather than using the traditional dichotomous approach, which categorizes styles as feminine or masculine. Gender differences in self-identified communication…

A construct labeled "self-silencing" or "loss of voice" as an aspect of female social development is emerging in current literature, and it is postulated that suppression of expression prescribes a more passive and muted role for women and lies at the root of depression in women. This study was a longitudinal project examining earlier parenting…