Pedagogical implications of transfer of training theory and of an assumed universal grammar, as related to second language learning processes, are reviewed in this article. In recent years, the concept of a universal grammar has lost its credibility. The author urges, however, that grammar be conceived as a process or method of generating or…

This analysis of several principles of translation considers relationships between content and meaning, distinctive features and linguistic form, and language and speech. The dichotomies of individual and community speech patterns, situationally determined and independent language usage, and denotative and expressive usage are also examined. The…