Integrating visual representations in an interactive learning activity effectively scaffolds performance and learning. However, it is unclear whether and how "sustaining" or "interleaving" visual scaffolding helps learners solve problems efficiently and learn from problem solving. We conducted a classroom study with 63…

Learners' choices as to whether and how to use visual representations during learning are an important yet understudied aspect of self-regulated learning. To gain insight, we developed a "choice-based" intelligent tutor in which students can choose whether and when to use diagrams to aid their problem solving in algebra. In an…

Although visual representations are generally beneficial for learners, past research also suggests that often only a subset of learners benefits from visual representations. In this work, we designed and evaluated anticipatory diagrammatic self- explanation, a novel form of instructional scaffolding in which visual representations are used to…