We use a concept of framing to explain 3 cases in which participants initially lacked mutual understanding but then achieved significant mutual understanding. The cases were all consistent with a pattern of "positional framing" that includes a human participant who is inquiring, which we call a "listener", and a "source", which may be another…

Proposed is a relational framework for characterizing experienced physicists' representations of physics problem situations and the process of constructing these representations. A representation includes a coherent set of relations among: (1) a mental model of the objects in the situation, along with their relevant properties and relations; (2) a…

Discusses (1) neobehaviorist theory and analysis of response probability, (2) discrete models of qualitative changes in knowledge and stages of processing, and (3) programmed simulations of the detailed structure of knowledge and cognitive processes. Comments on the prospects for developing significant new understandings of learning during the…

Although partially specified goals are sometimes thought to result from the uncertainties of ill-structured problems, analysis of human problem solving shows that indefinite goals are used in solving problems that are otherwise well structured. The example studied is taken from plane geometry and involves proving that two triangles are congruent.…

A processing model is presented that deals explicitly with both the text-comprehension and problem-solving aspects of word arithmetic problems. The model simulates construction of cognitive representations at various levels, distinguishes several information processing steps, and analyzes processing requirements that differ among types of…

In this study a distinction is made between routine, semiroutine, and nonroutine problems based on the problem solver's knowledge. Routine problems are solved by applying a known procedure, semiroutine problems require planning that uses functional knowledge, and nonroutine problems require generation of new functional knowledge. Nonroutine…

An experiment compared solving of operational and diagnostic problems after different instruction about a fictitious device. Solution of both kinds of problems was facilitated by instruction (1) that focused on functional relations among components of the device or (2) that focused on states of the individual components. For operational problems,…

The study concerned (1) identifying component processes of discovery and rule learning; (2) describing differences in learning outcomes produced by the two instructional methods, and; (3) optimizing learning. It was believed that understanding the effects of aptitude, instructional methods, and their interaction is important in the study of…

The purpose of this project was to develop new information and analyses that would contribute to development of a systematic understanding of cognitive structure, including its acquisition and utilization during problem solving. Experimental and theoretical work was done on three specific problems. (1) Studies of individual differences and effects…

The relation of knowledge for solving problems to understanding of general principles in a subject-matter domain is discussed. Theoretical representations, called "conceptual competence," are presented to represent principles that are believed to be understood implicitly by individuals. Implications for problem-solving procedures can be…

In the pair of experiments reported here the authors investigated the relationship between meaningfulness of problem statements and subjects' use of these statements in problem-solving tasks. Subjects (96 university students) were required to memorize meaningful formulae such as "volume = area x height" or corresponding symbolic formulae such as…

This project addressed the question: What knowledge and processes enable individuals to construct and modify representations of novel, nonroutine problems? The theoretical goal was to extend the information-processing theory of problem solving to include processes that have been characterized as restructuring of problems and productive thinking by…

Discussed is one "quite general" attribute that can differentiate problem representations: the kinds of entities that are included -- the cognitive objects that the system can reason about in a relatively direct way, and that are included continuously in the representation. The ontology of a domain is significant for four reasons. First,…

Results from a study of problem solving in the domain of instructional design are presented. Subjects were eight teacher trainees who were recent graduates of or were enrolled in the Stanford Teacher Education Program at Stanford University (California). Subjects studied a computer-based tutorial--the VST2000--about a fictitious vehicle. The…

The ways in which students in grades five and six solve problems is the focus of this paper, which provides background for the staff of the Skills Essential to Learning Television Project, (a multi-level series of video and print resources for classroom use). It considers the problem-solving process categories of understanding, transformation, and…