Although the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) mandates parent participation in their children's education programs, the implementation of IDEA results in parent effort beyond participation, specifically, an expectation of advocacy. To date, research on the advocacy expectation is mixed, with some parents perceiving…

This article describes models and methods of advocacy for families of children with disabilities in elementary and middle school, including self-advocacy, social support advocacy, interpersonal advocacy, and legal advocacy. Issues for parents during these years are discussed, as are the role and needs of siblings. Advocacy is seen as a dynamic…

Two traditions that have combined to discourage participation of African-American parents in special education procedures are described: a deficit view of African-American families and a deficit view of children's learning difficulties. Including parents in assessment, placement, policy making, and advocacy is recommended to restore the balance of…