Collaborative programming helps improve students' computational thinking and increases their confidence in solving programming problems. However, the effect of collaborative learning is not ideal because it is difficult for students to mobilize metacognition to regulate learning spontaneously. To guide students to effectively regulate the learning…

Education is a complex system, which has conceptual and methodological implications for education research and policy. In this article, an overview is first provided of the Complex Systems Conceptual Framework for Learning (CSCFL), which consists of a set of conceptual perspectives that are generally shared by educational complex systems,…

These authors have previously described how to use the "t" test to compare two groups. In this article, they describe the use of a different test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare more than two groups. ANOVA is a test of group differences: do at least two of the means differ from each other? ANOVA assumes (1) normal distribution…

Although estimations typically possess correct answers, these answers may be difficult to demonstrate to others. However, providing external information may increase their demonstrability. In this experiment, individuals (N = 60) and 6-person groups (N = 360) generated estimations with or without frames of reference. We hypothesized that…