Following Bennis and Shepard's work, groups are thought to become preoccupied with problems of gaining reassurance about six basic human tasks in turn. One can show that these problems, called focal problems, have two forms, inclusive and narrowed, and that progressing through the problems requires three subphases. (Author/ABL)

The importance in Japan of group identity, the Japanese approach to decision making, and the way in which the Japanese avoid conflict and build consensus when making a decision are characteristics of Japanese interactions that are critical for Americans to understand in order to communicate successfully with the Japanese. Those who would be…

One of the most important differences between American and Japanese cultures is the difference in group interaction. The Japanese have been described as group-oriented and Americans as individualistic. In Japan, groups are hierarchical and usually make decisions by consensus. Japanese groups play an important role in the lives of their members,…

Examines institutionalization and marginalization in the context of the history of education. Contends marginality is a fluctuating concept. Introduces the concept of an intermediary zone between marginality and normal life defined as the area of fragile existence. Argues that studying the history of marginality can help researchers investigate…

This paper reviews some key ideas that have emerged from recent research into administrative practices in education and their relationship to organizational culture. "Culture" is defined as a system of knowledge and conceptions that members of an organization use for giving meaning to and coping with problems that they experience. The…

The most important components of social relationships between pupils are described and systemized. Then the scattered and diverse methods for assessing social relationships are described and analyzed. (PN)