Introduction: This study aimed to estimate the causal effect of face-to-face learning on student performance in anatomy, compared to online learning, by analysing examination marks under a causal structure. Methods: We specified a causal graph to indicate how the mode of learning affected student performance. We sampled purposively to obtain…

While many studies have explored the pros and cons of emergency online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and its psychological impact on university students, little attention has been given to students' perspectives on adapting to evolving learning environments in the post-pandemic era. This research investigates the intricate dynamics of…