Learners use digital media during learning for a variety of reasons. Sometimes media use can be considered "on-task," e.g., to perform research or to collaborate with peers. In other cases, media use is "off-task," meaning that learners use content unrelated to their current learning task. Given the well-known problems with…

Learning activities are at the core of every educational design effort. Designing learning activities is a process that benefits from reflecting on previous runs of those activities. One way to measure the behaviour and effects of design choices is to use learning analytics (LA). The challenge, however, lies in the unavailability of an…

As a research field geared toward understanding and improving learning, Learning Analytics (LA) must be able to provide empirical support for causal claims. However, as a highly applied field, tightly controlled randomized experiments are not always feasible nor desirable. Instead, researchers often rely on observational data, based on which they…