The field dependent and independent dimensions of cognitive style focus on the individual's ability to perceive and manipulate a figure with or without a background. Research suggests that field dependence or independence does not significantly interact with expository or discovery teaching styles to heighten achievement. (Author/CMJ)

For four- and five-year-old lower socioeconomic status children learning basic mathematics, more indirect teacher behavior and the active involvement of the student in the learning process are significantly more effective in facilitating student achievement than is a direct instruction/passive reception learning mode. (JD)