Recent developments in the use of large-language models have led to substantial improvements in the accuracy of content-based automated scoring of free-text responses. The reported accuracy levels suggest that automated systems could have widespread applicability in assessment. However, before they are used in operational testing, other aspects of…

Using item-response theory to model rater effects provides an alternative solution for rater monitoring and diagnosis, compared to using standard performance metrics. In order to fit such models, the ratings data must be sufficiently connected in order to estimate rater effects. Due to popular rating designs used in large-scale testing scenarios,…