Background: Video conferencing technology has moved online education into a new stage of real-time video interaction. However, shortcomings such as students' lack of concentration and substantive engagement during video conferencing greatly limit the improvement of online learning effectiveness. According to social presence theory and the…

Background: Research in social cognition suggests that learning effectiveness in teacher-learner pairs may be influenced by how well their attention aligns with each other. However, we currently have limited understanding of how common distractions in real-world environments affect teacher-student interactions, specifically the synchronisation of…