Three studies explore arithmetic tasks that support both substitutive and basic relational meanings for the equals sign. The duality of meanings enabled children to engage meaningfully and purposefully with the structural properties of arithmetic statements in novel ways. Some, but not all, children were successful at the adapted task and were…

For six weeks, pupils in grades two, three, and four used either flash cards or a microcomputer program to practice basic subtraction and division facts. Equivalent learning resulted. (MNS)