In this paper, we describe two empirical studies that demonstrate the application and modeling of keystroke logs in writing assessments. We illustrate two different approaches of modeling differences in writing processes: analysis of mean differences in handcrafted theory-driven features and use of large language models to identify stable personal…

Despite the increasing ubiquity of computer-based tests, many general qualifications examinations remain in a paper-based mode. Insufficient and unequal digital provision across schools is often identified as a major barrier to a full adoption of computer-based exams for general qualifications. One way to overcome this barrier is a gradual…

The emergence of sophisticated AI tools such as ChatGPT, coupled with the transition to remote delivery of educational assessments in the COVID-19 era, has led to increasing concerns about academic integrity and test security. Using AI tools, test takers can produce high-quality texts effortlessly and use them to game assessments. It is thus…

Aim/Purpose: This study examined the experiences of international students writing a typed e-assessment at the on-campus computer lab on the ExamOnline system. Background: After a computer-based typed summative examination was introduced for one of the MSc degree's modules in a UK university, it was critical to ascertain its inclusivity. The…

Keystroke logs provide a comprehensive record of observable writing processes. Previous studies examining the keystroke logs of young L1 English writers performing experimental writing tasks have identified writing processes features predictive of the quality of responses. Contrarily, large-scale studies on the dynamic and temporal nature of L2…

This study compared gender groups on the processes used in writing essays in an online assessment. Middle-school students from four grades responded to essays in two persuasive subgenres, argumentation and policy recommendation. Writing processes were inferred from four indicators extracted from students' keystroke logs. In comparison to males, on…

Online examinations are an integral component of online learning environments and research studies have identified academic dishonesty as a critical threat to the credibility of such examinations. Academic dishonesty exists in many forms. Collusion is seen as a major security threat, wherein a student invites a third party for help or to…

Most research into second language (L2) writing has focused on the products of writing tasks; much less empirical work has examined the behaviours in which L2 writers engage and the cognitive processes that underlie writing behaviours. We aimed to fill this gap by investigating the extent to which writing speed fluency, pausing, eye-gaze…

The quality of students' writing skills continues to concern educators. Because writing is essential to success in both college and career, poor writing can have lifelong consequences. Writing is now primarily done digitally, but students receive limited explicit instruction in digital writing. This lack of instruction means that students fail to…

To investigate whether the type of keyboard used in exams introduces any construct-irrelevant variance to the TOEFL iBT Writing scores, we surveyed 17,040 TOEFL iBT examinees from 24 countries on their keyboard-related perceptions and preferences and analyzed the survey responses together with their test scores. Results suggest that controlling…

Evidence of comparability is generally needed whenever there are variations in the conditions of an assessment administration, including variations introduced by the administration of an assessment on multiple digital devices (e.g., tablet, laptop, desktop). This article is meant to provide a comprehensive examination of issues relevant to the…

In an age when students are increasingly expected to demonstrate technology-based writing proficiency, fluency challenges with word processing programs can pose a barrier to successful writing when students are asked to compose using these tools. The current study was designed to determine whether differences existed in typing fluency and digital…

While new technological developments and devices have transformed writing in several ways, little research has examined how learners experience handwriting and typing assignments and writing responses in the examinations in such cases. Basing the data source on in-depth interviews, the current study aims to examine Turkish university language…

This study investigated the cognitive processes underlying pauses at different textual locations (e.g., within/between words) and various levels of revision (e.g., below word/clause). We used stimulated recall, keystroke logging, and eye-tracking methodology in combination to examine pausing and revision behaviors. Thirty advanced Chinese L2 users…

Learning analytics offers insights into student behaviour and the potential to detect poor performers before they fail exams. If the activity is primarily online (for example computer programming), a wealth of low-level data can be made available that allows unprecedented accuracy in predicting which students will pass or fail. In this paper, we…