Causal inference involves determining whether a treatment (e.g., an education program) causes a change in outcomes (e.g., academic achievement). It is well-known that causal effects are more challenging to estimate than associations. Over the past 50 years, the potential outcomes framework has become one of the most widely used approaches for…

This paper reviews the issues involved in using statistical data on multiple choice examination results as evidence of cheating among college student test-takers. Recent studies have demonstrated the large extent of academic dishonesty among American college students. Seeking to curb this trend, college faculty have been turning to statistical…