Profiles three twentieth-century outdoor camping leaders. Describes early camping programs as "experimental intentional communities" teaching personal and social empowerment. Portia Mansfield's Wyonegonic Camps emphasized cooperation and artistic freedom. Joshua Lieberman's Pioneer Youth Camp taught workers' children social…

Examines the failure of the experimental occupation of five Scottish camps by children evacuated from Dundee, Edinburgh, and Glasgow between 1940 and 1945, with emphasis on the bitter dispute between central and local government over the administration of the camp schools. (MH)

Summarizes the history of the outdoor education movement from the idea stage of school camping (1930-1939) to the present stage of diversity and growing opportunities for resident outdoor programs and programs for special populations. Analyzes research literature, noting thematic trends and quantitative studies of numbers of participants and…