Two ways of measuring change are presented and compared: A conventional "change score", defined as the difference between scores before and after an interim period, and a process-oriented approach focusing on detailed analysis of conceptually defined response patterns. The validity of the two approaches was investigated. Vocabulary…

This study investigated the use of the pre-instruction of vocabulary in order to improve elementary students' reading comprehension of a narrative text. Three classes of second, fourth, and sixth graders were pre-taught meanings of twenty different vocabulary target words for three consecutive weeks. The pre-teaching included four days of rich…