Predicting student performance in international large-scale assessments (ILSAs) is crucial for understanding educational outcomes on a global scale. ILSAs, such as the Program for International Student Assessment and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, serve as vital tools for policymakers, educators, and researchers to…

Exploring the relationship between student ability and test-taking effort is an important area of study, offering insights into their approach to educational assessments. Previous research shows this relationship, yet there is a scarcity of research comparing the test-taking effort of students. In addition, researchers have frequently employed…