Questions asked by teachers are vital to maintaining and sustaining learner engagement. In Hong Kong secondary classrooms where English is used as the medium of instruction (EMI), productive teacher questioning is key to promoting both language and content learning. Drawing on classroom observations and in-depth interviews, this study investigated…

In bilingual elementary classrooms where English is taught as a foreign language, science lessons often prioritize spoken interaction, while reading and writing receive less emphasis. This article explores how Cognitive Discourse Functions (CDFs)--such as defining, explaining, hypothesizing, and evaluating--can support disciplinary and…

Within the research on bilingual learning, first studies have revealed that content learned in one language is retrieved more slowly when participants have to switch language from instruction to testing (i.e., language-switching costs, LSC). These costs are attributed to language-dependent knowledge representations. However, the cognitive…

Background/purpose: Indonesian language education at the senior high school level is expected to foster not only linguistic competence but also critical thinking and cultural awareness. Textbooks, as the primary learning instrument, must be evaluated for their alignment with curriculum goals and global literacy demands. Materials/methods: This…